Class: alpha-Adrenergic Blocking Agents
VA Class: CV150
CAS Number: 19237-84-4
Brands: Minipress
Introduction
Postsynaptic α1-adrenergic blocking agent; quinazoline derivative.101 b
Uses for Prazosin Hydrochloride
Hypertension
Management of hypertension (alone or in combination with other classes of antihypertensive agents).101 153 161
Current antihypertensive and urology guidelines (e.g., JNC 7) no longer recommend α1-blockers as preferred first-line therapy for patients with hypertension.b
Acute management of severe hypertension in patients with increased concentrations of circulating catecholamines.b
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
Has been used to reduce urinary obstruction and relieve associated manifestations in patients with symptomatic BPH†; efficacy relative to other α1-adrenergic blockers remains to be established.112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Has been used in the management of PTSD†, particularly in combat veterans and in patients experiencing nighttime PTSD symptoms (e.g., nightmares, sleep disturbances).200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 215 216 217 221 222 225
Some clinicians currently recommend prazosin as first-line or alternative therapy when treating PTSD patients with prominent nighttime symptoms, particularly in combat veterans.201 204 212 215 217 222 225 Further studies necessary in civilians with noncombat trauma-related PTSD and in treatment of daytime PTSD symptoms.200 201 203 204 208 216
Prazosin Hydrochloride Dosage and Administration
Administration
Oral Administration
Administer orally in divided doses 2 or 3 times daily.101
Manufacturers make no specific recommendations regarding administration with meals.101 221
Dosage
Available as prazosin hydrochloride; dosage expressed in terms of prazosin.101 b
Individualize dosage according to patient response and tolerance.101 b Initiate at low dosage to minimize frequency of postural hypotension and syncope.101 b
Postural effects are most likely to occur 2–6 hours after a dose; monitor BP during this period after first dose and with any dosage increases.161 179
If therapy is interrupted for a few days, restart using initial dosage regimen.
Pediatric Patients
Hypertension†
Oral
Initially, 0.05–0.1 mg/kg daily given in 3 divided doses.195 Increase dosage as necessary up to a maximum of 0.5 mg/kg daily given in 3 divided doses.195
Adults
Hypertension
Monotherapy
Oral
Initially, 1 mg 2 or 3 times daily.101 b Do not initiate with higher dosages.101 b May increase dosage gradually to 20 mg daily given in divided doses.101 b
Usual maintenance dosage: 6–15 mg daily given in divided doses.101 b
Careful monitoring of BP is recommended during initial titration or subsequent upward dosage adjustment;161 avoid large or abrupt reductions in BP.161 179
For the acute management of severe hypertension, initially, 1–2 mg; dosage may be repeated after 1 hour, if necessary.b
Combination Therapy
Oral
When other hypotensive agents or diuretics are added to existing prazosin therapy, reduce dosage to 1 or 2 mg 3 times daily; gradually increase according to patient's response and tolerance.101 b
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder†
Optimum dosage not established.200 201 212 In clinical studies, usual initial dosage was 1 mg at bedtime; dosage was then gradually increased based on patient's response and tolerance.200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 217 220 Maintenance dosages ranging from 1 to 25 mg daily (given once daily at bedtime or in 2 divided doses) have been use.200 203 206 210 212 217 220 225 Some experts recommend a target maintenance dosage of 1–10 mg daily; others recommend a higher target dosage of 2–20 mg daily.224 225
Prescribing Limits
Pediatric Patients
Hypertension†
Oral
Maximum 0.5 mg/kg daily.195
Adults
Hypertension
Oral
Maximum 20 mg daily.101 b Although higher dosages usually do not increase efficacy, a few patients may benefit from ≤40 mg daily.101 b
Special Populations
Hepatic Impairment
No specific dosage recommendations at this time.b
Renal Impairment
Initially, 1 mg twice daily.b Patients with chronic renal failure may require only small dosages.b
Geriatric Patients
No specific dosage recommendations at this time;b generally increase dosage more slowly in geriatric hypertensive patients than in younger adults.
Cautions for Prazosin Hydrochloride
Contraindications
Known hypersensitivity to prazosin, quinazolines (e.g., alfuzosin, doxazosin, terazosin), or any ingredient in the formulation.101
Warnings/Precautions
Warnings
Postural Hypotension
Like other α-adrenergic blocking agents, marked hypotension, especially in the upright position, can occur; may be accompanied by syncope, palpitations, and other postural effects (e.g., dizziness, lightheadedness, vertigo).101
Postural effects are most common after an initial dose, shortly after dosing (e.g., within 90 minutes), when dosage is rapidly increased, or when other antihypertensive agents are added to therapy.101 b
To decrease risk of excessive hypotension and syncope, initiate therapy at a low dosage (i.e., 1 mg) and titrate slowly; initiate concomitant antihypertensive agents with caution.101 b
If syncope or hypotension occurs, place patient in a recumbent position and institute supportive therapy as necessary.101 b
General Precautions
Intraoperative Floppy Iris Syndrome (IFIS)
IFIS observed during cataract surgery in some patients currently receiving or previously treated with α1-adrenergic blocking agents.101 218
If patient has received α1-blockers, ophthalmologist should be prepared to modify the surgical technique (e.g., through use of iris hooks, iris dilator rings, viscoelastic substances) to minimize complications of IFIS.101 218
Benefit of discontinuing α1-blockers, including prazosin, prior to cataract surgery not established.101 218
Prostate Cancer
Exclude possibility of prostate cancer before initiation of therapy for BPH.155 156
Specific Populations
Pregnancy
Category C.101
Lactation
Distributed into milk in small amounts.101 Caution if used in nursing women.101 b
Pediatric Use
Safety and efficacy not established in children <18 years of age.101 b
Geriatric Use
Geriatric patients may be particularly susceptible to postural effects and other adverse effects.153 161
Common Adverse Effects
Dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, drowsiness, lack of energy, weakness, palpitation, nausea.101 b
Interactions for Prazosin Hydrochloride
Protein-bound Drugs
Potential pharmacokinetic interaction (displacement of prazosin or other protein-bound drug).b
Specific Drugs and Laboratory Tests
Drug | Interaction | Comments |
|---|---|---|
Analgesic agents (aspirin, indomethacin, phenylbutazone [no longer commercially available in the US], propoxyphene) | No interaction observed101 | |
Antiarrhythmic agents (procainamide, quinidine) | No interaction observed101 | |
Antigout agents (allopurinol, colchicine, probenecid) | No interaction observed101 | |
Antihypertensive agents (e.g., propranolol) | Possible additive hypotensive effects and symptomatic hypotension101 | Initiate additional antihypertensive agents with caution; may reduce prazosin dosage and gradually increase dosage based on clinical response101 |
Benzodiazepines (chlordiazepoxide, diazepam) | No interaction observed101 | |
Digoxin | No interaction observed101 | |
Diuretics | Possible additive hypotensive effects and symptomatic hypotension101 b | Effect usually used to therapeutic advantageb Initiate diuretics with caution; may reduce prazosin dosage and gradually increase dosage based on clinical response101 |
Hypoglycemic agents (insulin, chlorpropramide, phenformin [no longer commercially available in the US], tolazamide, tolbutamide) | No interaction observed101 | |
Phenobarbital | No interaction observed101 | |
Phosphodiesterase (PDE) type 5 inhibitors (e.g., sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil) | Possible additive hypotensive effects and symptomatic hypotension101 | Initiate PDE type 5 inhibitor at lowest possible dosage101 |
Test for pheochromocytoma | Possible increase in urinary metabolite of norepinephrine and VMA; false positive results may occur in pheochromocytoma screening tests101 | If elevated VMA is observed, discontinue prazosin and repeat test after 1 month101 |
Prazosin Hydrochloride Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Bioavailability
Peak plasma concentrations attained within about 2–3 hours.b
Bioavailability is approximately 60%.b
Onset
In patients with hypertension, maximum reduction in BP usually occurs 2–4 hours after administration.b
Food
Food does not affect the extent of absorption; however, absorption may be delayed.b
Distribution
Extent
Not known whether prazosin crosses the placenta;b distributed into milk in small amounts.b Crosses the blood-brain barrier.200 204 205 206 208 210
Plasma Protein Binding
Approximately 97%.b
Elimination
Metabolism
Extensively metabolized, principally in the liver by demethylation and conjugation.101 b
Elimination Route
Excreted principally in feces via biliary excretion and to a lesser extent in urine (6–10%).101 b
Half-life
2–4 hours.b
Stability
Storage
Oral
Capsules
20-25°C; protect from moisture and light.221
ActionsActions
Reduces peripheral vascular resistance and BP as a result of vasodilating effects;101 b produces both arterial and venous dilation.101
Effects appear to result from selective, competitive inhibition of α1-adrenergic receptors.b
Generally causes no change in heart rate, cardiac output, renal blood flow, and GFR.101 b
Binds to α-adrenergic receptors on the prostate capsule, prostate adenoma, and bladder trigone, resulting in decreased urinary outflow resistance in men.
May improve to limited extent the serum lipid profile (e.g., small increases in HDL and HDL/total cholesterol ratio; small decreases in LDL, total cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations).153 161 c
Precise mechanism of action in PTSD not fully elucidated; however, norepinephrine and α1-adrenergic receptors play an important role in the pathophysiology of PTSD-associated nightmares, arousal, selective attention and vigilance.200 201 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 216 217 220 Prazosin is believed to help correct the effects of α1-adrenergic receptor hyperstimulation in PTSD and has also been shown to normalize the sleep cycle.200 203 205 206 211 220
Advice to Patients
Possible dizziness, lightheadedness or fainting, especially at initiation of therapy;101 b importance of avoiding driving or other hazardous tasks where injury could occur for 24 hours after the first dose or when dosage is increased.101
Importance of advising patient that alcohol use, hot weather, exercise, and standing for long periods of time may precipitate or exacerbate symptoms of dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting, and to use caution during these situations.101
Importance of sitting or lying down when symptoms of lowered BP occur, and of rising carefully from a sitting or lying position.101 b
Possible drowsiness or somnolence; use caution when operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle until effects on individual are known.b
Importance of advising patients being considered for cataract surgery that they should inform their ophthalmologist of current or prior α1-blocker therapy, including prazosin.101 218
Importance of advising patients receiving prazosin for PTSD† that the drug may help reduce nightmares and improve sleep and other symptoms; however, it does not cure PTSD and their nightmares, anxiety, and other PTSD-related symptoms may return if therapy is stopped.201 203 219
Importance of women informing clinicians if they are or plan to become pregnant or plan to breast-feed.101
Importance of informing clinicians of existing or contemplated concomitant therapy, including prescription and OTC drugs, as well as concomitant illnesses.101
Importance of informing patients of other important precautionary information.101 (See Cautions.)
Preparations
Excipients in commercially available drug preparations may have clinically important effects in some individuals; consult specific product labeling for details.
* available from one or more manufacturer, distributor, and/or repackager by generic (nonproprietary) name
Routes | Dosage Forms | Strengths | Brand Names | Manufacturer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral | Capsules | 1 mg (of prazosin)* | Minipress | Pfizer |
Prazosin Hydrochloride Capsules | ||||
2 mg (of prazosin)* | Minipress | Pfizer | ||
Prazosin Hydrochloride Capsules | ||||
5 mg (of prazosin)* | Minipress | Pfizer | ||
Prazosin Hydrochloride Capsules |
Comparative Pricing
This pricing information is subject to change at the sole discretion of DS Pharmacy. This pricing information was updated 03/2011. Actual costs to patients will vary depending on the use of specific retail or mail-order locations and health insurance copays.
Minipress 1MG Capsules (PFIZER U.S.): 60/$51.99 or 180/$149.97
Minipress 2MG Capsules (PFIZER U.S.): 60/$69.99 or 180/$199.98
Minipress 5MG Capsules (PFIZER U.S.): 60/$123.99 or 180/$347.96
Prazosin HCl 1MG Capsules (MYLAN): 60/$17.99 or 180/$37.97
Prazosin HCl 2MG Capsules (TEVA PHARMACEUTICALS USA): 60/$22.99 or 180/$49.97
Prazosin HCl 5MG Capsules (TEVA PHARMACEUTICALS USA): 60/$33.99 or 180/$93.97
Disclaimer
This report on medications is for your information only, and is not considered individual patient advice. Because of the changing nature of drug information, please consult your physician or pharmacist about specific clinical use.
The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com represent that the information provided hereunder was formulated with a reasonable standard of care, and in conformity with professional standards in the field. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com make no representations or warranties, express or implied, including, but not limited to, any implied warranty of merchantability and/or fitness for a particular purpose, with respect to such information and specifically disclaims all such warranties. Users are advised that decisions regarding drug therapy are complex medical decisions requiring the independent, informed decision of an appropriate health care professional, and the information is provided for informational purposes only. The entire monograph for a drug should be reviewed for a thorough understanding of the drug's actions, uses and side effects. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com do not endorse or recommend the use of any drug. The information is not a substitute for medical care.
AHFS Drug Information. © Copyright, 1959-2011, Selected Revisions February 2011. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc., 7272 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20814.
† Use is not currently included in the labeling approved by the US Food and Drug Administration.
References
Only references cited for selected revisions after 1984 are available electronically.
100. Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The 1984 report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1984; 144:1045-57. [IDIS 184763] [PubMed 6143542]
101. Pfizer Labs. Minipress (prazosin hydrochloride) capsules prescribing information. New York, NY; 2009 Jul.
102. Waldo R. Prazosin relieves Raynaud’s vasospasm. JAMA. 1979; 241:1037. [IDIS 101504] [PubMed 762741]
103. Nielsen SL, Vitting K, Rasmussen K. Prazosin treatment of primary Raynaud’s phenomenon. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1983; 24:421-3. [IDIS 170153] [PubMed 6345178]
104. Wollersheim H, Thien T, Fennis J et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of prazosin in Raynaud’s phenomenon. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1986; 40:219-25. [IDIS 219933] [PubMed 3731684]
105. Cobaugh DS. Prazosin treatment of ergotamine-induced peripheral ischemia. JAMA. 1980; 244:1360. [IDIS 125518] [PubMed 7411811]
106. 1988 Joint National Committee. The 1988 report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1988; 148:1023-38. [IDIS 242588] [PubMed 3365073]
107. Guilleminault C, Mignot E, Aldrich M et al. Prazosin contraindicated in patients with narcolepsy. Lancet. 1988; 2:511. [IDIS 245751] [PubMed 2900433]
108. Aldrich MS, Rogers AE. Exacerbation of human cataplexy by prazosin. Sleep. 1989; 12:254-6. [PubMed 2740697]
109. Mignot E, Guilleminault C, Bowersox S et al. Central alpha 1 adrenoceptor subtypes in narcolepsy-cataplexy: a disorder of REM sleep. Brain Res. 1989; 490:186-91. [PubMed 2569353]
110. Mignot E, Guilleminault C, Bowersox S et al. Role of central alpha-1 adrenoceptors in canine narcolepsy. J Clin Invest. 1988; 82:885-94. [PubMed 2843574]
111. Mignot E, Guilleminault C, Bowersox S et al. Effect of central alpha 1-adrenoceptors blockade with prazosin in canine narcolepsy. Brain Res. 1988; 444:184-8. [PubMed 2834022]
112. Milroy E. Clinical overview of prazosin in the treatment of prostatic obstruction. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):1-3. [PubMed 1690474]
113. Kondo A, Gotoh M, Saito M et al. The efficacy of prazosin HCl in the treatment of urinary flow obstruction due to prostatic hypertrophy. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):4-17. [PubMed 1690480]
114. Aoki H, Ohninata M, Tsuzuki T et al. Clinical studies on the effectiveness of prazosin HCl (Minipress tablets) in the treatment of dysuria accompanying benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):18-25. [PubMed 1690476]
115. Kohama Y, Watanabe H, Sen Y et al. Effects of prazosin HCl on micturition disturbance associated with benign prostatic hypertrophy and bladder neck contracture. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):26-9. [PubMed 1690477]
116. Nakamura K, Kawashita E, Osumi Y et al. Effects of prazosin HCl on the urethral pressure profile in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):30-5. [PubMed 1690478]
117. Shimizu K, Nakai K, Imai K et al. Effects of an alpha 1-adrenergic blocker (prazosin HCl) on micturition disturbances associated with benign prostatic hypertrophy. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):36-9. [PubMed 1690479]
118. Yamaguchi O, Shiraiwa Y, Kobayashi M et al. Clinical evaluation of effects of prazosin in patients with benign prostatic obstruction; a double-blind, multi-institutional, Paraprost-controlled study. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):40-6. [PubMed 1690481]
119. Chapple CR, Christmas TJ, Milroy EJ. A twelve-week placebo-controlled study of prazosin in the treatment of prostatic obstruction. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):47-55. [PubMed 1690482]
120. Le Duc A, Cariou G, Baron C. A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the efficacy of prazosin in the treatment of dysuria associated with benign prostatic hypertrophy. Urol Int. 1990; 45(Suppl 1):56-62. [PubMed 1690483]
121. Andersson KE. Current concepts in the treatment of disorders of micturition. Drugs. 1988; 35:477-94. [IDIS 240964] [PubMed 3292211]
122. Shapiro E. Embryologic development of the prostate. Insights into the etiology and treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urol Clin North Am. 1990; 17:487-93. [PubMed 1695777]
123. Hedlund H, Andersson KE, Ek A. Effects of prazosin in patients with benign prostatic obstruction. J Urol. 1983; 130:275-8. [IDIS 174305] [PubMed 6192252]
124. Kirby RS, Coppinger SW, Corcoran MO et al. Prazosin in the treatment of prostatic obstruction. A placebo-controlled study. Br J Urol. 1987; 60:136-42. [PubMed 2444306]
125. Lepor H. Role of long-acting selective alpha-1 blockers in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urol Clin North Am. 1990; 17:651-9. [PubMed 1695785]
126. Ruutu ML, Hansson E, Juusela HE et al. Efficacy and side-effects of prazosin as a symptomatic treatment of benign prostatic obstruction. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1991; 25:15-9. [PubMed 1710823]
127. Rowden AM, Mowers RM. Prazosin in benign prostatic hypertrophy. DICP Ann Pharmacother. 1989; 23:474-5.
128. Brendler CB. Diseases of the prostate. In: Wyngaarden JB, Smith LH Jr, Bennett JC, eds. Cecil textbook of medicine. 19th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1992:1351-5.
129. Kirby RS. Alpha-adrenoceptor inhibitors in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am J Med. 1989; 87(Suppl 2A):26-30S.
130. Lepor H. Alpha adrenergic antagonists for the treatment of symptomatic BPH. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1989; 27:151-5. [PubMed 2469658]
131. Chisholm GD. Benign prostatic hyperplasia: the best treatment. BMJ. 1989; 299:215-6. [IDIS 257552] [PubMed 2475197]
132. Lepor H. Role of alpha-adrenergic blockers in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate Suppl. 1990; 3:75-84. [PubMed 1689172]
133. Chapple C. Medical treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia. BMJ. 1992; 304:1198-9. [IDIS 296671] [PubMed 1381250]
134. Caine M. Alpha-adrenergic blockers for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urol Clin North Am. 1990; 17:641-9. [PubMed 1695784]
135. Geller J. Nonsurgical treatment of prostatic hyperplasia. Cancer. 1992; 70(Suppl 1):339-45. [IDIS 298353] [PubMed 1376202]
136. Chapple CR, Aubry ML, James S et al. Characterisation of human prostatic adrenoceptors using pharmacology receptor binding and localisation. Br J Urol. 1989; 63:487-96. [PubMed 2471572]
137. Staub WR, Staub JS. Phenoxybenzamine in benign prostatic obstruction. JAMA. 1988; 260:2220. [IDIS 246399] [PubMed 2459421]
138. Hieble JP, Caine M, Zalaznik E. In vitro characterization of the alpha-adrenoceptors in human prostate. Eur J Pharmacol. 1985; 107:111-7. [PubMed 2579826]
139. Caine M. Alpha-adrenergic mechanisms in dynamics of benign prostatic hypertrophy. Urology. 1988; 32(Suppl 6):16-20. [PubMed 2462300]
140. Abrams PH, Shah PJ, Stone R et al. Bladder outflow obstruction treated with phenoxybenzamine. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1981; 78:269-75. [PubMed 6174998]
141. Barry MJ. Phenoxybenzamine in benign prostatic obstruction. JAMA. 1988; 260:2220.
142. Gerstenberg T, Blaabjerg J, Nielsen ML et al. Phenoxybenzamine reduces bladder outlet obstruction in benign prostatic hyperplasia: a urodynamic investigation. Invest Urol. 1980; 18:29-31. [IDIS 118319] [PubMed 6157651]
143. Caine M, Perlberg S, Meretyk S. A placebo-controlled double-blind study of the effect of phenoxybenzamine in benign prostatic obstruction. Br J Urol. 1978; 50:551-4. [PubMed 88984]
144. Caine M. Clinical experience with alpha-adrenoceptor antagonists in benign prostatic hypertrophy. Fed Proc. 1986; 45:2604-8. [PubMed 2428670]
145. Griffiths DJ, Schröder FH. Phenoxybenzamine in prostatic obstruction. Urol Int. 1984; 39:241-2. [PubMed 6207651]
146. Caine M, Perlberg S, Shapiro A. Phenoxybenzamine for benign prostatic obstruction: review of 200 cases. Urology. 1981; 17:542-6. [PubMed 6166111]
147. Lepor H, Meretyk S, Knapp-Maloney G. The safety, efficacy and compliance of terazosin therapy for benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Urol. 1992; 147:1554-7. [IDIS 297430] [PubMed 1375659]
148. Lepor H. The emerging role of alpha antagonists in the therapy of benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Androl. 1991; 12:389-94. [PubMed 1722795]
149. Lepor H, Machi G. The relative efficacy of terazosin versus terazosin and flutamide for the treatment of symptomatic BPH. Prostate. 1992; 20:89-95. [PubMed 1372430]
150. Reviewers’ comments (personal observations).
151. Garraway WM, Collins GN, Lee RJ. High prevalence of benign prostatic hypertrophy in the community. Lancet. 1991; 338:469-71. [PubMed 1714529]
152. Bostwick DG, Cooner WH, Denis L et al. The association of benign prostatic hypertension and cancer of the prostate. Cancer. 1992; 70(Suppl 1):291-301. [PubMed 1376199]
153. Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The fifth report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC V). Arch Intern Med. 1993; 153:154-83. [IDIS 309043] [PubMed 8422206]
154. Weber MA, Laragh JH. Hypertension: steps forward and steps backward: the Joint National Committee fifth report. Arch Intern Med. 1993; 153:149-52. [PubMed 8422205]
155. Roerig. Cardura (doxazosin mesylate) tablets prescribing information. New York: 1994 Dec.
156. Abbott Laboratories. Hytrin (terazosin hydrochloride) capsules prescribing information. In: Physicians’ desk reference. Montvale, NJ; 1996:430-3.
157. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. NHLBI panel reviews safety of calcium channel blockers. Rockville, MD; 1995 Aug 31. Press release.
158. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. New analysis regarding the safety of calcium-channel blockers: a statement for health professionals from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Rockville, MD; 1995 Sep 1.
159. Psaty BM, Heckbert SR, Koepsell TD et al. The risk of myocardial infarction associated with antihypertensive drug therapies. JAMA. 1995; 274:620-5. [IDIS 352203] [PubMed 7637142]
160. Yusuf S. Calcium antagonists in coronary artery disease and hypertension: time for reevaluation? Circulation. 1995; 92:1079-82. Editorial.
161. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC VI). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 1997 Nov. (NIH publication No. 98-4080.)
162. Kaplan NM. Choice of initial therapy for hypertension. JAMA. 1996; 275:1577-80. [IDIS 365188] [PubMed 8622249]
163. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Siscovich DS et al. Health outcomes associated with antihypertensive therapies used as first-line agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 1997; 277:739-45. [IDIS 380501] [PubMed 9042847]
164. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA et al. for the TONE Collaborative Research Group. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: a randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). JAMA. 1998; 279:839-46. [PubMed 9515998]
165. Izzo JL, Levy D, Black HR. Importance of systolic blood pressure in older Americans. Hypertension. 2000; 35:1021-4. [PubMed 10818056]
166. Frohlich ED. Recognition of systolic hypertension for hypertension. Hypertension. 2000; 35:1019-20. [PubMed 10818055]
167. The ALLHAT collaborative research group. Major cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients randomized to doxazosin vs chlorthalidone: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering treatment to prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2000; 283:1967-75. [IDIS 444771] [PubMed 10789664]
168. Lasagna L. Diuretics vs α-blockers for treatment of hypertension: lessons from ALLHAT. JAMA. 2000; 283:2013-4. [IDIS 444774] [PubMed 10789671]
169. Bakris GL, Williams M, Dworkin L et al. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 36:646-61. [IDIS 452007] [PubMed 10977801]
170. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. Lancet. 1998; 351:1755-62. [IDIS 409003] [PubMed 9635947]
171. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24(Suppl 1):S33-43.
172. American Diabetes Association. Clinical Practice Recommendations 2001. Position Statement. Diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24(Suppl 1):S69-72.
173. Appel LJ. The verdict from ALLHAT—thiazide diuretics are the preferred initial therapy for hypertension. JAMA. 2002; 288:3039-60. [IDIS 490723] [PubMed 12479770]
174. The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002; 288:2981-97. [IDIS 490721] [PubMed 12479763]
175. The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002; 288:2998-3007. [IDIS 490722] [PubMed 12479764]
176. American Urological Association Practice Guideline Committee. AUA guidelines on management of benign prostatic hyperplasia (2003). Chapter 1: Diagnosis and treatment recommendations. J Urol. 2003; 170:530-47. [PubMed 12853821]
177. Kaplan NM. Initial treatment of adult patients with essential hypertension. Part 2: alternating monotherapy is the preferred treatment. Pharmacotherapy. 1985; 5:195-200. [IDIS 394161] [PubMed 4034407]
178. Bauer JH. Stepped-care approach to the treatment of hypertension: is it obsolete? (unpublished observations)
179. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC VII) Express. Bethesda, MD: May 14 2003. From NIH website. (). (Also published in JAMA. 2003; 289.
180. Thomas E. Kottke, MD, MSPH; Robert J. Stroebel, MD; Rebecca S. Hoffman, BA JNC 7—It’s More Than High Blood Pressure. JAMA. 2003;289.
181. Neal B, MacMahon S, Chapman N. Effects of ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood-pressure-lowering drugs. Lancet. 2000;356:1955-64.
182. Cushman WC, Ford CE, Cutler JA, et al. Success and predictors of blood pressure control in diverse North American settings: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2002;4:393-404.
183. Black HR, Elliott WJ, Neaton JD et al. Baseline characteristics and elderly blood pressure control in the CONVINCE trial. Hypertension. 2001; 37:12-18. [PubMed 11208750]
184. Black HR, Elliott WJ, Grandits G, et al. Principal results of the Controlled Onset Verapamil Investigation of Cardiovascular End Points (CONVINCE) trial. JAMA. 2003;289:2073-2082.
185. Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint Reduction in Hypertension Study (LIFE). Lancet. 2002;359:995-1003.
186. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:145-153.
187. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet. 2001;358:1033-41.
188. Wing LMH, Reid CM, Ryan P, et al, for Second Australian National Blood Pressure Study Group. A comparison of outcomes with angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and diuretics for hypertension in the elderly. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:583-92.
189. American Diabetes Association. Treatment of hypertension in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26(Suppl 1):S80-2.
190. Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:2101-2113.
191. Guidelines Committee. 2003 European Society of Hypertension–European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. J Hypertension. 2003; 21:1011-53.
192. The Guidelines Subcommittee of the WHO/ISH Mild Hypertension Liaison Committee. 1999 guidelines for the management of hypertension. J Hypertension. 1999; 17:392-403.
193. Khoury AF, Kaplan NM. α-Blocker therapy of hypertension. JAMA. 1991; 266:394-8. [IDIS 283041] [PubMed 1676077]
194. Itskovitz HD. Alpha1 blockers: safe, effective treatment for hypertension. Postgrad Med. 1991; 89:89-112. [IDIS 283690] [PubMed 1674822]
195. National high blood pressure education program working group on hypertension control in children and adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2004; 114(Suppl 2):555-76. [PubMed 15286277]
196. Hill SJ, Lawrence SL, Lepor H. New use for alpha blockers: benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am Fam Physician. 1994; 49:1885-8. [IDIS 330970] [PubMed 7515555]
200. Miller LJ. Prazosin for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder sleep disturbances. Pharmacotherapy. 2008; 28:656-66. [PubMed 18447662]
201. Taylor HR, Freeman MK, Cates ME. Prazosin for treatment of nightmares related to posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2008; 65:716-22. [PubMed 18387899]
202. Dierks MR, Jordan JK, Sheehan AH. Prazosin treatment of nightmares related to posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2007; 41:1013-7. [PubMed 17504838]
203. Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Kanter ED et al. Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2003; 160:371-3. [PubMed 12562588]
204. Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Hoff DJ et al. A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61:928-34. [PubMed 17069768]
205. Taylor FB, Martin P, Thompson C et al. Prazosin effects on objective sleep measures and clinical symptoms in civilian trauma PTSD: a placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2008; 63:629-32. [PubMed 17868655]
206. Raskind MA, Dobie DJ, Kanter ED et al. The α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin ameliorates combat trauma nightmares in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a report of 4 cases. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000; 61:129-33. [PubMed 10732660]
207.
No comments:
Post a Comment